Appendix B. Estimates of dispersal scale for marine taxa.†
Species |
Type‡ |
Taxonomy |
Method |
IBD slope§ |
Dispersal scale (km) |
Reference |
Genetic Estimates | ||||||
Acanthaster planci |
I |
Echinodermata:Asteroidea |
Allozyme |
0.00000805 |
199 |
Nishida and Lucas 1988 |
Acanthaster planci (non-outbreaking) |
I |
Echinodermata:Asteroidea |
Allozyme |
0.0000119 |
135 |
Benzie 1994 |
Acanthochromis polyacanthus |
F |
Perciformes:Pomacentridae |
Allozyme |
0.000506 |
3.2 |
Doherty et al. 1994 |
Acanthurus triostegus |
F |
Perciformes:Acanthuridae |
Allozyme |
0.0000475 |
33.7 |
Planes 1993 |
Acanthurus triostegus |
F |
Perciformes:Acanthuridae |
Allozyme |
0.0000376 |
42.5 |
Planes et al. 1994 |
Acropora cuneata |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.030 || |
0.053 |
Ayre and Hughes 2000 |
Acropora cytherea |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.016 d |
0.1 |
Ayre and Hughes 2000 |
Acropora hyacinthus |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.014 || |
0.114 |
Ayre and Hughes 2000 |
Acropora palifera |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.018 || |
0.089 |
Ayre and Hughes 2000 |
Adalaria proxima |
I |
Mollusca:Opisthobranchia |
Allozyme |
0.024 |
0.067 |
Todd et al. 1998 |
Alaria marginata |
M |
Phaeophyta |
AFLP |
0.000381 |
4.2 |
Kusumo and Druehl 2000 |
Alloclinus holderi |
F |
Perciformes:Labrisomidae |
Allozyme |
0.000028 || |
57.2 |
Waples 1987 |
Amphiprion clarkii |
F |
Perciformes:Pomacentridae |
Allozyme |
0.0000639 |
25.1 |
Bell et al. 1982, Lacson 1992 |
Amphiprion melanopus |
F |
Perciformes:Pomacentridae |
Allozyme |
0.00005 |
32 |
Doherty et al. 1995 |
Axoclinus nigricaudus |
F |
Perciformes:Tripterygiidae |
MtDNA |
0.00059 |
2.7 |
Riginos and Nachman 2001 |
Balanophyllia elegans |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.00204 |
0.785 |
Hellberg 1994, Palumbi 2001 |
Bedeva hanleyi |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.000263 |
6.1 |
Borsa et al. 1997 |
Bembicium vittatum |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.000347 |
4.6 |
Parsons 1996 |
Bunodosoma caissarum |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.0000365 || |
43.9 |
Russo et al. 1994 |
Caloglossa leprieurii |
M |
Rhodophyta |
SSCP |
0.003406 |
0.47 |
Zuccarello et al. 2000 |
Carterospongia flabellifera |
I |
Porifera:Dictyoceratidae |
Allozyme |
0.00162 |
0.988 |
Benzie et al. 1994 |
Caulerpa racemosa var laetevirens |
M |
Chlorophyta |
Allozyme |
0.01064 || |
0.150 |
Benzie et al. 1997 |
Caulerpa serrulata |
M |
Chlorophyta |
Allozyme |
0.009769 || |
0.164 |
Benzie et al. 1997 |
Caulerpa taxifolia |
M |
Chlorophyta |
Allozyme |
0.006431 || |
0.249 |
Benzie et al. 1997 |
Caulolatilus princeps |
F |
Perciformes:Malacanthidae |
Allozyme |
0.000008 || |
200 |
Waples 1987 |
Celleporella hyalina |
I |
Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida |
RAPD |
0.005291 |
0.303 |
Goldson et al. 2001 |
Cerastoderma glaucum |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.0000153 |
104 |
Mariani et al. 2002 |
Chthamalus montagui |
I |
Crustacea:Cirripedia |
Allozyme |
0.000008 || |
200 |
Pannacciulli et al. 1997 |
Chthamalus montagui |
I |
Crustacea:Cirripedia |
Allozyme |
0.00001 || |
160 |
Pannacciulli et al. 1997 |
Chthamalus stellatus |
I |
Crustacea:Cirripedia |
Allozyme |
0.0000124 || |
129 |
Pannacciulli et al. 1997 |
Chthamalus stellatus |
I |
Crustacea:Cirripedia |
Allozyme |
0.0000072 || |
222 |
Pannacciulli et al. 1997 |
Clinocottus analis |
F |
Scorpaeniformes:Cottidae |
Allozyme |
0.000042 || |
38.1 |
Waples 1987 |
Cominella lineolata |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.002906 || |
0.551 |
Hoskin 1997 |
Concholepas concholepas |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.0000131 |
122 |
Gallardo and Carrasco 1996 |
Dascyllus aruanus |
F |
Perciformes:Pomacentridae |
Allozyme |
0.0000113 |
142 |
Planes et al. 1993 |
Dascyllus trimaculatus |
F |
Perciformes:Pomacentridae |
MtDNA |
0.0000337 |
47.5 |
Bernardi et al. 2001 |
Delisea pulchra |
M |
Rhodophyta |
RAPD |
0.20688 |
0.008 |
Wright et al. 2000 |
Donax deltoides |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.00000818 |
196 |
Murray-Jones and Ayre 1997 |
Echinometra lucunter |
I |
Echinodermata:Asteroidea |
MtDNA |
0.0000212 |
75.5 |
McCartney et al. 2000 |
Echinometra mathaei |
I |
Echinodermata:Echinoidea |
MtDNA |
0.00003 |
53.4 |
Palumbi 1997, Palumbi 2003 |
Electra pilosa |
I |
Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida |
RAPD |
0.000268 |
6.0 |
Goldson et al. 2001 |
Embiotoca jacksoni |
F |
Perciformes:Embiotocidae |
Allozyme |
0.000444 || |
3.6 |
Waples 1987 |
Gadus morhua |
F |
Gadiformes:Gadidae |
RAPD |
0.0000094 |
170 |
Pogson et al. 1995, Pogson et al. 2001 |
Gelidium canariensis (sporophytes) |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Allozyme |
0.0013 || |
1.2 |
Sosa et al. 1998 |
Girella nigricans |
F |
Perciformes:Kyphosidae |
Allozyme |
0.000006 || |
267 |
Waples 1987 |
Glycera dibranchiata |
I |
Polychaeta |
Allozyme |
0.000318 |
5 |
Bristow and Vadas 1991 |
Gnatholepis thompsoni |
F |
Perciformes:Gobiidae |
MtDNA |
0.00000956|| |
168 |
Shulman and Bermingham 1995 |
Gracilaria cervicornis |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Allozyme |
0.001609 |
0.995 |
Sosa 1996 |
Gracilaria gracilis |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Microsatellite |
0.000403 |
4.0 |
Engel et al. 1997 |
Halichoeres bivittatus |
F |
Perciformes:Labridae |
MtDNA |
0.0000091 || |
176 |
Shulman and Bermingham 1995 |
Halidrys dioica |
M |
Phaeophyta |
Allozyme |
0.001855 |
0.863 |
Lu and Williams 1994 |
Haliotis cracherodii |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
MtDNA |
0.0000663 || |
24.2 |
Hamm and Burton 2000 |
Hediste diversicolor |
I |
Polychaeta |
Allozyme |
0.000386 |
4.2 |
Abbiati and Maltagliati 1996 |
Heliocidaris erythrogramma |
I |
Echinodermata:Echinoidea |
MtDNA |
0.000221 |
7.2 |
McMillan et al. 1992 |
Hydrobia ventrosa |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
MtDNA |
0.000101 |
15.8 |
Wilke and Davis 2000 |
Kandella candel |
Ma |
Angiosperm |
Allozyme |
0.000427 || |
3.8 |
Sun et al. 1998 |
Lates calcarifer |
F |
Perciformes:Centropomidae |
MtDNA |
0.0000382 |
41.9 |
Chenoweth et al. 1998 |
Lithothrix aspergillum |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Allozyme |
0.005662 |
0.283 |
Pearson and Murray 1997 |
Littoraria cingulata |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.0000747 |
21.4 |
Johnson and Black 1998 |
Littorina littorea |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.00007 || |
22.9 |
Janson 1987 |
Littorina saxatilis |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.000239 |
6.7 |
Janson 1987 |
Littorina striata |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
RAPD |
0.0000116 |
139 |
De Wolf et al. 1998 |
Littorina subrotundata |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
MtDNA |
0.001644 |
0.974 |
Kyle and Boulding 2000 |
Lythrypnus dalli |
F |
Perciformes:Gobiidae |
Allozyme |
0.000008 || |
200 |
Waples 1987 |
Merluccius merluccius |
F |
Gadiformes:Merlucciidae |
Allozyme |
0.000008 |
200 |
Borsa et al. 1997 |
Mullus surmuletus |
F |
Perciformes:Mullidae |
RAPD |
0.0000193 |
83 |
Mamuris et al. 1999 |
Nucella lamellosa |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Allozyme |
0.000241 |
6.6 |
Grant and Utter 1988 |
Ostrea edulis |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.0000182 |
88.1 |
Borsa et al. 1997 |
Oulactis muscosa |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.0000401 || |
39.9 |
Hunt and Ayre 1989 |
Pandalus borealis |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Allozyme |
0.0000143 |
112 |
Kartavtsev 1994 |
Pecten jacobaeus |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.00000320 |
501 |
Ríos et al. 2002 |
Phyllospongia alcicornis |
I |
Porifera:Dictyoceratidae |
Allozyme |
0.000707 |
2.3 |
Benzie et al. 1994 |
Phyllospongia lamellose |
I |
Porifera:Dictyoceratidae |
Allozyme |
0.00046 || |
3.5 |
Benzie et al. 1994 |
Platichthys flesus ssp. flesus |
F |
Pleuronectiformes:Pleuronectidae |
Allozyme |
0.0000145 |
110 |
Borsa et al. 1997 |
Pocillopora damicornis |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.008 || |
0.2 |
Ayre and Hughes 2000 |
Posidonia oceanica |
S |
Angiosperm |
Microsat. |
0.00036 || |
4.4 |
Procaccini et al. 2001 |
Riftia pachyptila |
I |
Annelida:Polychaeta |
Allozyme |
0.00000962 |
166 |
in Vrijenhoek 1997 |
Sargassum polyceratium |
M |
Phaeophyta |
RAPD |
0.00496 |
0.323 |
Engelen et al. 2001 |
Sciaenops ocellatus |
F |
Perciformes:Sciaenidae |
Microsatellite |
0.00000304 |
527 |
Gold and Turner 2002 |
Sebastes helvomaculatus |
F |
Scorpaeniformes:Sebastidae |
MtDNA |
0.000034 |
47.1 |
Rocha-Olivares and Vetter 1999 |
Semicossyphus pulcher |
F |
Perciformes:Labridae |
Allozyme |
0.000017 || |
94.2 |
Waples 1987 |
Silvetia compressa |
M |
Phaeophyta |
Allozyme |
0.006192 |
0.259 |
Williams and Di Fiori 1996 |
Solea solea |
F |
Pleuronectiformes:Soleidae |
Allozyme |
0.0000119 |
134 |
Kotoulas et al. 1995 |
Stegastes leucostictus |
F |
Perciformes:Pomacentridae |
MtDNA |
0.0000209 || |
76.7 |
Shulman and Bermingham 1995 |
Stylophora pistillata |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.036 || |
0.044 |
Ayre and Hughes 2000 |
Synalpheus brooksi |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Allozyme |
0.000569 |
2.8 |
Duffy 1993 |
Synalpheus pectiniger |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Allozyme |
0.0000772 |
20.8 |
Duffy 1993 |
Thalassia testudinum |
S |
Angiosperm |
Allozyme |
0.001467 |
1.1 |
Schlueter and Guttman 1998 |
Tridacna derasa |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.0000111 |
144 |
Benzie 1994 |
Tridacna maxima |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.00000879 |
182 |
Benzie and Williams 1997 |
Tridacna maxima |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.0000159 |
101 |
Benzie and Williams 1997 |
Ventiella sulfuris |
I |
Crustacea:Malacostraca |
Allozyme |
0.0000311 |
51.5 |
in Vrijenhoek 1997 |
Venus antiqua |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Allozyme |
0.0000826 |
19.4 |
Gallardo et al. 1998 |
Zoanthus coppingeri |
I |
Cnidaria |
Allozyme |
0.0000525 |
30.5 |
Burnett et al. 1995 |
Zostera marina |
S |
Angiosperm |
Microsatellite |
0.000303 |
5.3 |
Reusch et al. 2000 |
Invasion estimates |
Average rate¶ (km/y) |
Maximum rate (km/y) |
||||
Antithamnionella ternifolia |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Field |
64 |
. |
Maggs and Stegenga 1999 |
Botrylloides leachi |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
Field |
16 |
. |
Grosholz 1996 |
Carcinus maenas |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Field |
173 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Carcinus maenas |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Field |
63 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Carcinus maenas |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Field |
55 |
. |
Grosholz 1996 |
Caulerpa taxifolia |
M |
Chlorophyta |
Field |
0.5 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides |
M |
Chlorophyta |
Field |
12 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Dasya baillouviana |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Field |
40 |
. |
Maggs and Stegenga 1999 |
Elminius modestus |
I |
Crustacea:Cirripedia |
Field |
41 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Ensis americanus |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Field |
125 |
. |
Armonies 2001 |
Ensis directus |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Field |
111 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Grateloupia doryphora |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Field |
2 |
. |
Maggs and Stegenga 1999 |
Hemigrapsus penicillatus |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Field |
160 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Hemigrapsus sanguineus |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
Field |
33 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Hypnea musciformis |
M |
Rhodophyta |
Field |
3.8 |
. |
Russell and Balazs 1994 |
Littorina littorea |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
Field |
42 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Lutjanus kasmira |
F |
Perciformes:Lutjanidae |
Field |
130 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Membranipora membranacea |
I |
Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida |
Field |
20 |
. |
Grosholz 1996 |
Mytilus galloprovincialis |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Field |
97 |
. |
McQuaid and Phillips 2000 |
Mytilus galloprovincialis |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Field |
115 |
. |
Grosholz 1996 |
Perna perna |
I |
Mollusca:Bivalvia |
Field |
235 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Philine auriformis |
I |
Mollusca:Opisthobranchia |
Field |
80 |
Grosholz 1996 |
|
Sargassum muticum (average) |
M |
Phaeophyta |
Field |
43 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Tritonia plebeia |
I |
Mollusca:Opisthobranchia |
Field |
50 |
Grosholz 1996 |
|
Undaria pinnatifida |
M |
Phaeophyta |
Field |
0.37 |
0.5 |
Fletcher and Farrell 1999 |
Zostera japonica |
S |
Angiosperm |
Field |
6 |
. |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
Direct or experimental estimates |
Dispersal scale (km) |
|||||
Alaria esculenta |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.01 |
Sundene 1962 |
|
Alpheus immaculatus |
I |
Crustacea:Decapoda |
settlement |
0.03 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Balanophyllia elegans |
I |
Cnidaria |
settlement |
0.0005 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Botrylloides sp. |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
direct obs |
0.0006 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Botryllus schlosseri |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
settlement |
0.001 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Bugula neritina |
I |
Bryozoa:Cheilostomatida |
settlement |
0.1 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Colpomenia peregrina |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.002 |
Vandermeulen and DeWreede 1986 |
|
Didemnum molle |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
direct obs |
0.05 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Diplosoma similes |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
direct obs |
0.0022 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Ectocarpus siliculosus |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
4 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Fucus distichus |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.001 |
Pearson and Brawley 1996 |
|
Fucus sp. |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.06 |
in Fletcher and Callow 1992 |
|
Gracilaria verrucosa |
M |
Rhodophyta |
settlementf |
0.0013 |
Destombe et al. 1992 |
|
Gracilaria gracilis |
M |
Rhodophyta |
paternity analysis |
0.0025 |
Engel et al. 1999 |
|
Haliotis rubra |
I |
Mollusca:Gastropoda |
settlement |
0.015 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Laminaria hyperborea |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.2 |
Fredriksen et al. 1995 |
|
Lissoclinum patella |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
direct obs |
0.01 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Macrocystis pyrifera |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.04 |
Anderson and North 1966 |
|
Oligocottus maculosus |
F |
Scorpaeniformes:Cottidae |
direct obs |
1 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Pocillopora damicornis |
I |
Cnidaria |
settlement |
0.04 |
Tioho et al. 2001 |
|
Podoclavella moluccensis |
I |
Chordata:Urochordata |
direct obs |
0.0025 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Postelsia palmaeformis |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.003 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Pterygophora californica |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.5 |
Shanks et al. 2003 |
|
Sargassum muticum |
M |
Phaeophyta |
recruitment |
0.03 |
Deysher and Norton 1982 |
|
Sargassum polyceratium |
M |
Phaeophyta |
recruitment |
0.001 |
in Engelen et al. 2001 |
|
Silvetia compressa |
M |
Phaeophyta |
settlement |
0.001 |
Williams and Di Fiori 1996 |
|
Zostera marina |
S |
Angiosperm |
settlement |
0.200 |
Churchill et al.1985 |
†Estimated from genetics, invasion rate, and direct/experimental techniques. Each method entails biases and uncertainties which limit the use of these dispersal estimates to a comparative context. See text for details.
‡Taxonomic group, M = Macroalga, I = Invertebrate, F = Fish, S = Seagrass, Ma = Mangrove.
§Estimated from increase in FST or equivalent over spatial scale of the study (see Methods for details).
||Slope approximated from FST or equivalent at a single spatial scale, assuming no differentiation at smallest scale (see Methods for details).
¶Where average invasion rate differs across regions, directions of spread, or time periods within a study, the maximum average rate is reported.
#Based on settlement in a flume tank.
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